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The fugacity of carbon dioxide (fCO2) of the surface waters of the Weddell Sea along the prime meridian has been described for the austral autumn in 1996 and 1998. For individual years, fCO2 has a strong linear relationship with sea surface temperature, although the relationships cannot be reconciled to provide an interannually consistent algorithm for remotely sensed assessment of fCO2. However, from the assumption that Weddell Sea surface water has a single end member (upwelled Warm Deep Water) we have determined the relative contributions of heating, ice-melt, and biological activity on fCO2. A breakdown of the controls shows that the measured annual fCO2 distributions can be recreated for both transects by adjusting solely for thermodynamic forcing, and model adjustments for salinity are small except in regions of significant upwelling during 1998. The incorporation of nitrate utilisation into the model results in a general and significant underestimation of fCO2. This runs contrary to the earlier findings of Sabine and Key (Mar. Chem. 60 (1998) 95) in the Southern Ocean although it is consistent with models in the area (Louanchi et al., Deep-Sea Res. I 48 (2001) 1581). A major caveat to these findings is the significant departure of the thermodynamic model and a tightening of the nitrate-adjusted model in 1998 in areas with deeper mixing in the southern Weddell Sea. We propose that there are two reasons for the discrepancies in our model: the source waters are not as homogenous as the model assumes; and there are geographical and seasonal variations of CO2 exchange with the atmosphere and the input of inorganic carbon and nitrate from below the mixed layer resulting in imbalances in the mixed layer concentration ratios.

The distribution and speciation of iron was determined along a transect in the eastern Atlantic sector (6°E) of the Southern Ocean during a collaborative Scandinavian/South African Antarctic cruise conducted in late austral summer (December 1997/January 1998). Elevated concentrations of dissolved iron (>0.4nM) were found at 60°S in the vicinity of the Spring Ice Edge (SIE) in tandem with a phytoplankton bloom, chiefly dominated by Phaeocystis sp. This bloom had developed rapidly after the loss of the seasonal sea ice cover. The iron that fuelled this bloom was mostly likely derived from sea ice melt. In the Winter Ice Edge (WIE), around 55°S, dissolved iron concentrations were low (<0.2nM) and corresponded to lower biological productivity, biomass. In the Antarctic Polar Front, at approximately 50°S, a vertical profile of dissolved iron showed low concentrations (<0.2nM); however, a surface survey showed higher concentrations (1–3nM), and considerable patchiness in this dynamic frontal region. The chemical speciation of iron was dominated by organic complexation throughout the study region. Organic iron-complexing ligands ([L]) ranged from 0.9 to 3.0nM Fe equivalents, with complex stability logKFeL′=21.4–23.5. Estimated concentrations of inorganic iron (Fe′) ranged from 0.03 to 0.79pM, with the highest values found in the Phaeocystis bloom in the SIE. A vertical profile of iron-complexing ligands in the WIE showed a maximum consistent with a biological source for ligand production and near surface minimum possibly consistent with loss via photodecomposition. This work further confirms the role iron that has in the Southern Ocean in limiting primary productivity.

A suite of standard ocean hydrographic and circulation metrics are applied to the equilibrium physical solutions from 13 global carbon models participating in phase 2 of the Ocean Carbon-cycle Model Intercomparison Project (OCMIP-2). Model-data comparisons are presented for sea surface temperature and salinity, seasonal mixed layer depth, meridional heat and freshwater transport, 3-D hydrographic fields, and meridional overturning. Considerable variation exists among the OCMIP-2 simulations, with some of the solutions falling noticeably outside available observational constraints. For some cases, model-model and model-data differences can be related to variations in surface forcing, subgrid-scale parameterizations, and model architecture. These errors in the physical metrics point to significant problems in the underlying model representations of ocean transport and dynamics, problems that directly affect the OCMIP predicted ocean tracer and carbon cycle variables (e.g., air-sea CO2 flux, chlorofluorocarbon and anthropogenic CO2 uptake, and export production). A substantial fraction of the large model-model ranges in OCMIP-2 biogeochemical fields (±25–40%) represents the propagation of known errors in model physics. Therefore the model-model spread likely overstates the uncertainty in our current understanding of the ocean carbon system, particularly for transport-dominated fields such as the historical uptake of anthropogenic CO2. A full error assessment, however, would need to account for additional sources of uncertainty such as more complex biological-chemical-physical interactions, biases arising from poorly resolved or neglected physical processes, and climate change.

Cold shelf waters flowing out of the Filchner Depression in the southern Weddell Sea make a significant contribution to the production of Weddell Sea Bottom Water (WSBW), a precursor to Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW). We use all available current meter records from the region to calculate the flux of cold water (<−1.9°C) over the sill at the northern end of the Filchner Depression (1.6 ± 0.5 Sv), and to determine its fate. The estimated fluxes and mixing rates imply a rate of WSBW formation (referenced to −0.8°C) of 4.3 ± 1.4 Sv. We identify three pathways for the cold shelf waters to enter the deep Weddell Sea circulation. One path involves flow constrained to follow the shelf break. The other two paths are down the continental slope, resulting from the cold dense water being steered northward by prominent ridges that cross the continental slope near 36°W and 37°W. Mooring data indicate that the deep plumes can retain their core characteristics to depths greater than 2000 m. Probably aided by thermobaricity, the plume water at this depth can flow at a speed approaching 1 m s−1, implying that the flow is occasionally supercritical. We postulate that such supercriticality acts to limit mixing between the plume and its environment. The transition from supercritical to slower, more uniform flow is associated with very efficient mixing, probably as a result of hydraulic jumps.

The Miami Isopycnic Coordinate Ocean Model (MICOM) is used to investigate the effect of diapycnal mixing on the oceanic uptake of CFC-11 and the ventilation of the surface waters in the Southern Ocean (south of 45°S). Three model experiments are performed: one with a diapycnal mixing coefficientKd (m2 s−1) of 2 × 10−7/N (Expt. 1), one withKd = 0 (Expt. 2), and one withKd = 5 × 10−8/N (Expt. 3),N (s−1) is the Brunt-Väisälä frequency. The model simulations indicate that the observed vertical distribution of CFC-11 along 88°W (prime meridian at 0°E) in the Southern Ocean is caused by local ventilation of the surface waters and westward-directed (eastward-directed) isopycnic transport and mixing from deeply ventilated waters in the Weddell Sea region. It is found that at the end of 1997, the simulated net ocean uptake of CFC-11 in Expt. 2 is 25% below that of Expt. 1. The decreased uptake of CFC-11 in the Southern Ocean accounts for 80% of this difference. Furthermore, Expts. 2 and 3 yield far more realistic vertical distributions of the ventilated CFC-waters than Expt. 1. The experiments clearly highlight the sensitivity of the Southern Ocean surface water ventilation to the distribution and thickness of the simulated mixed layer. It is argued that inclusion of CFCs in coupled climate models could be used as a test-bed for evaluating the decadal-scale ocean uptake of heat and CO2.

The ocean cavity beneath Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf is observed to respond to the seasonal cycle of water mass production on the continental shelf of the southern Weddell Sea. Here we use a numerical model to investigate the propagation of newly formed shelf waters into the cavity. We find that the model reproduces the most distinctive features of the observed seasonality and offers a plausible explanation for those features. The most saline shelf waters are produced in the far west, where the inflow to the cavity peaks twice each year. The major peak occurs during the short period around midwinter when convection reaches full depth and the densest waters are generated. Once the surface density starts to decline, dynamic adjustment of the restratified water column leads to a gradual fall in the salinity at depth and a secondary peak in the inflow that occurs in summer at the western coast. Beneath the ice shelf the arrival of the wintertime inflow at the instrumented sites is accompanied by a rapid warming, while the slower decline in the inflow leads to a more gradual cooling. Water brought in by the secondary, summer peak flows mainly to the eastern parts of the cavity. Here the seasonality is suppressed because the new inflows mix with older waters that recirculate within a topographic depression. This pooling of waters in the east, where the primary outflow of Ice Shelf Water is generated, dampens the impact of seasonality on the local production of Weddell Sea Bottom Water.

Multichannel seismic reflection data from the Cosmonaut Sea margin of East Antarctica have been interpreted in terms of depositional processes in the continental slope and rise area. A major sediment lens is present below the upper continental rise along the entire Cosmonaut Sea margin. The lens probably consists of sediments supplied from the shelf and slope, being constantly reworked by westward flowing bottom currents, which redeposited the sediments into a large scale drift deposit prior to the main glaciogenic input along the margin. High-relief semicircular or elongated depositional structures are also found on the upper continental rise stratigraphically above the regional sediment lens, and were deposited by the combined influence of downslope and alongslope sediment transport. On the lower continental rise, large-scale sediment bodies extend perpendicular to the continental margin and were deposited as a result of downslope turbidity transport and westward flowing bottom currents after initiation of glacigenic input to the slope and rise. We compare the seismostratigraphic signatures along the continental margin segments of the adjacent Riiser Larsen Sea, the Weddell Sea and the Prydz Bay/Cooperation Sea, focussing on indications that may be interpreted as a preglacial-glaciomarine transition in the depositional environment. We suggest that earliest glaciogenic input to the continental slope and rise occurred in the Prydz Bay and possibly in the Weddell Sea. At a later stage, an intensification of the oceanic circulation pattern occurred, resulting in the deposition of the regional plastered drift deposit along the Cosmonaut Sea margin, as well as the initiation of large drift deposits in the Cooperation Sea. At an even later stage, possibly in the middle Miocene, glacial advances across the continental shelf were initiated along the Cosmonaut Sea and the Riiser Larsen Sea continental margins.

By studying multichannel seismic data across the continental slope and rise of the eastern Riiser Larsen Sea and through a comparison with other East Antarctic continental margins, the base of the glaciomarine deposits has been traced in this area. The seismic data reveal the presence of large channel-levee complexes as well as multiple types of contourite accumulations. Downslope and alonglope processes thus interacted in forming the glaciomarine deposits. The deposits are attributed to the advances of ice sheet, delivering huge amounts of sediment to the shelf edge and upper slope during glacial maxima. Oversteepening and instability generated down-slope turbidity currents forming channel–levee complexes whereas the contourite accumulations were probably mostly formed during interglacials. The spatial distribution of the current controlled deposits indicates that bottom currents flow along the western slope of the Gunnerus Ridge.

We present oceanographic data from beneath the northern Ronne Ice Shelf. The data were collected during the austral summer of 2002–2003 from four sites located near the ice front in the Ronne Depression. They consist of conductivity-temperature-depth (CTD) profiles and time series from moored instruments that vary in length from 9 to 20 weeks. A strong, tidally modulated inflow of relatively fresh water was found at the eastern margin of the Ronne Depression. This low-density inflow powers high basal melt rates that are responsible for a substantially thinned area of ice shelf. A northward flow of Ice Shelf Water along the western margin of the depression (the Antarctic Peninsula coast) was inferred from the CTD data. From the new CTD and current meter data, and from published results from cruises along the ice front, we suggest that the flows at the margins of the Ronne Depression establish east-west density gradients that drive an anticyclonic circulation within the depression. The barotropic component of the circulation forms a gyre of strength 5 × 105 m3 s−1 and occupies a bowl in the field of water column thickness in the northern portion of the depression. All water masses sampled had temperatures below the surface freezing point and are therefore classified as Ice Shelf Water. The relatively complex nature of the oceanographic regime in the Ronne Depression is overlain by a seasonal variability that is hinted at by the available time series, probably explaining the apparent absence of inflowing HSSW at the time of the measurements.

Multiyear time series of ocean current and temperatures from beneath Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf, Antarctica, demonstrate both seasonal and interannual variability. The seasonal signal is visible at all measurement sites, although it was swamped for a 2-year period (1999–2001) when extraordinarily light sea-ice cover in the southern Weddell Sea during the 1997–1998 Austral summer caused an anomalously large pulse of High Salinity Shelf Water to flush beneath the ice shelf. The pulse was observed twice at an instrumented site near the Berkner Island coast, once on its way to the Filchner Depression and once after the signal had propagated around the depression and returned to the site as an anomalously large pulse of Ice Shelf Water. The timings of the signal allow an estimate of 24–30 months for the flushing timescales of the sub-ice shelf ocean cavity, indicating that the cavity is highly responsive to external forcing. A timescale for the full ventilation of the cavity of 4–5 years is obtained from the length of time the sub-ice shelf conditions take to return to their original state, a timescale significantly shorter than previous estimates.

This paper presents results from seismic measurements of the ice and water column thickness of the Fimbul Ice Shelf in the northeastern Weddell Sea. Seismic reflection measurements were conducted at 183 stations covering most of the ice shelf. Seismic velocities in the ice were derived from refraction measurements at 12 stations, distributed evenly across the area, as well as from temperature and density data from the Fimbul Ice Shelf. Velocities in the water were derived from temperature and salinity data from beneath the Fimbul Ice Shelf. Ice thicknesses were found to vary between 160 m and 550 m with uncertainties up to ±10 m. Water column thicknesses up to 900 m were found within the central ice shelf cavity, and values exceed 2000 m where the ice shelf overhangs the continental slope. Uncertainties in water column thickness are estimated to be ±60 m, and are dominated by the uncertainties in the shape of the seabed. Ice draft and seabed elevation was derived from ice and water column thickness assuming hydrostatic pressure. The resulting map of seabed elevation and water column thickness suggests that the strong westward flowing coastal current will be steered under the ice shelf and thus drive a sub-ice-shelf flow. Warm Deep Water does not have direct access to the ice shelf cavity, while relatively cold coastal waters shallower than 500 m will interact closely with the Fimbul Ice Shelf.

Iron(III) photoreduction and the responses of phytoplankton under ultraviolet (UV) and photosynthetically available radiation (PAR) were investigated with the presence of hydroxycarboxylic acid (glucaric acid (GA), a model compound for organic acids excreted by phytoplankton). The incubation experiments were carried out on board using seawater samples collected in the location of the winter ice edge (WIE) and the spring ice edge (SIE) of the Southern Ocean. In this paper, we focus on the results of experiment in WIE. Throughout the experiments, dissolved Fe(II), major nutrients and in vivo fluorescence were monitored regularly. In addition, Chl-a, POC/PON, cell densities of phytoplankton and bacteria, bacterial production, organic peroxide, hydrogen peroxide and total CO2 were measured. The results from the WIE show that iron enrichment had a substantial effect on phytoplankton growth rate. Fe(III) addition in the presence of GA (FeGA) gave higher Fe(II) concentration and higher growth rate of phytoplankton than those in controls. Our results suggest that hydroxycarboxylic acid had a significant chemical and biological impact. The presence of GA influenced iron photochemistry and iron availability to phytoplankton. Phytoplankton growth responses to iron enrichments in incubations under UV and PAR were completely dissimilar. It seems that FeGA addition prominently changes the harmful effect of UV on the phytoplankton population. This study provides preliminary information on how the photoreduction of iron(III) and the phytoplankton growth are affected by iron enrichment in the presence of hydroxycarboxylic acid.

We present a compilation of more than 45,000 km of multichannel seismic data acquired in the last three decades in the Weddell Sea. In accordance with recent tectonic models and available drillhole information, a consistent stratigraphic model for depositional units W1–W5 is set up. In conjunction with existing aeromagnetic data, a chronostratigraphic timetable is compiled and units W1.5, W2 and W3 are tentatively dated to have ages of between 136 Ma and 114 Ma. The age of W3 is not well constrained, but might be younger than 114 Ma. The data indicate that the thickest sediments are present in the western and southern Weddell Sea. These areas formed the earliest basins in the Weddell Sea and so the distribution of Mesozoic sediments is in accordance with the tectonic development of the ocean basin. In terms of Cenozoic glacial sediments, the largest depocenters are situated in front of the Filchner–Ronne Shelf, i.e. at the Crary Fan, with a thickness of up to 3 km.

We present a model for the growth of frazil ice crystals and their accumulation as marine ice at the base of Antarctic ice shelves. The model describes the flow of buoyant water upward along the ice shelf base and includes the differential growth of a range of crystal sizes. Frazil ice formation starts when the rising plume becomes supercooled. Initially, the majority of crystals have a radius of ?0.3 mm and concentrations are below 0.1 g/L. Depending on the ice shelf slope, which controls the plume speed, frazil crystals increase in size and number. Typically, crystals up to 1.0 mm in radius are kept in suspension, and concentrations reach a maximum of 0.4 g/L. The frazil ice in suspension decreases the plume density and thus increases the plume speed. Larger crystals precipitate upward onto the ice shelf base first, with smaller crystals following as the plume slows down. In this way, marine ice is formed at rates of up to 4 m/yr in some places, consistent with areas of observed basal accumulation on Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf. The plume continues below the ice shelf as long as it is buoyant. If the plume reaches the ice front, its rapid rise produces high supercooling and the ice crystals attain a radius of several millimeters before reaching the surface. Similar ice crystals have been trawled at depth north of Antarctic ice shelves, but otherwise no observations exist to verify these first predictions of ice crystal sizes and volumes.

The role of iron and light in controlling photosynthate production and allocation in phytoplankton populations of the Atlantic sector of the Southern Ocean was investigated in April–May 1999. The 14C incorporation into five biochemical pools (glucan, amino acids, proteins, lipids and polysaccharides) was measured during iron/light perturbation experiments. The diurnal Chl a-specific rates of carbon incorporation into these pools did not change in response to iron addition, yet were decreased at 20 μmol photons m−2 s−1, an irradiance comparable with the one at 20–45 m in situ depth. This suggests that the low phytoplankton biomass encountered (0.1–0.6 μg Chl a L−1) was mainly caused by light limitation in the deep wind mixed layer (&gt;40 m). Regional differences in Chl a-specific carbon incorporation rates were not found in spite of differences in phytoplankton species composition: at the Antarctic Polar Front, biomass was dominated by a diatom population of Fragilariopsis kerguelensis, whereas smaller cells, including chrysophytes, were relatively more abundant in the Antarctic Circumpolar Current beyond the influence of frontal systems. Because mixing was often in excess of 100 m in the latter region, diatom cells may have been unable to fulfil their characteristically high Fe demand at low average light conditions, and thus became co-limited by both resources. Using a model that describes the 14C incorporation, the consistency was shown between the dynamics in the glucan pool in the field experiments and in laboratory experiments with an Antarctic diatom, Chaetoceros brevis. The glucan respiration rate was almost twice as high during the dark phase as during the light phase, which is consistent with the role of glucan as a reserve supplying energy and carbon skeletons for continued protein synthesis during the night.

A 12.5 m long core was retrieved from the continental margin off Dronning Maud Land, Antarctica. Magnetostratigraphy, stable isotopes, 14C accelerator mass spectrometer and amino acid analyses indicate a continuous sediment record going back 1.3 Myr. Comparison of CaCO3 results with those from ODP Site 1089 and an index of North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW) influence in surface waters indicate that NADW upwelled along the Antarctic continental margin during the whole of this period. The mid-Pleistocene transition (1.0–0.6 Ma) was accompanied by an apparent decline in the NADW influence, and was followed by extended carbonate dissolution during the interglacials of marine isotope stages (MIS) 13 and 11. Less extensive periods of dissolution occur at the end of the interglacials younger than MIS 11. While interglacial dissolution is characteristic of the Pacific and Indian oceans, the carbon isotopes return to pre-transition values indicative of renewed NADW upwelling. The concentration of ice-rafted debris may reflect changes in the relative rate of interglacial sedimentation. It is speculated that the high ice rafted debris (IRD) concentrations during interglacials younger than 400 kyr may be due to a reduced relative sedimentation rate of other interglacial components whereas the low concentrations during interglacials before the mid-Pleistocene transition may be due to a higher relative sedimentation rate of these.

We use new data from the southern Weddell Sea continental shelf to describe water mass conversion processes in a formation region for cold and dense precursors of Antarctic Bottom Water. The cruises took place in early 1995, 1998, and 1999, and the time series obtained from moored instruments were up to 30 months in length, starting in 1995. We obtained new bathymetric data that greatly improve our definition of the Ronne Depression, which is now shown to be limited to the southwestern continental shelf and so cannot act as a conduit to northward flow from Ronne Ice Front. Large-scale intrusions of Modified Warm Deep Water (MWDW) onto the continental shelf occur along much of the shelf break, although there is only one location where the MWDW extends as far south as Ronne Ice Front. High-Salinity Shelf Water (HSSW) produced during the winter months dominates the continental shelf in the west. During summer, Ice Shelf Water (ISW) exits the subice cavity on the eastern side of the Ronne Depression, flows northwest along the ice front, and reenters the cavity at the ice front's western limit. During winter the ISW is not observed in the Ronne Depression north of the ice front. The flow of HSSW into the subice cavity via the Ronne Depression is estimated to be 0.9 ± 0.3 Sv. When combined with inflows along the remainder of Ronne Ice Front (reported elsewhere), sufficient heat is transported beneath the ice shelf to power an average basal melt rate of 0.34 ± 0.1 m yr−1.

We present mid-Pliocene (4.3–2.6 Ma) benthic stable oxygen and carbon isotope data from Ocean Drilling Program Site 1092 (ODP Leg 177) drilled in the sub-Antarctic sector of the Southern Ocean. The results are compared with the stable isotope results from nearby Site 704 (ODP Leg 114). Oxygen isotope data show that minimum values are about 0.5‰ less than those of the Holocene, which is consistent with the results from Site 704, indicating only minor deglaciation of Antarctica during the studied interval. Oxygen isotope data from both Site 1092 and Site 704 are slightly higher relative to Pacific values during several intervals which could be related to the contribution of warm, saline North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW). Comparisons of benthic carbon isotope gradients between sites located in the North Atlantic, sub-Antarctic sector of the Southern Ocean, and Pacific indicate that at times, the gradient between the Southern Ocean and the Pacific evolved differently than the Atlantic–Pacific gradient. This suggests that variations in NADW strength alone might not be responsible for the observed carbon isotope values in the Southern Ocean.

The summer of 1997 was characterized by unusually large amounts of pack ice in the southeastern Weddell Sea, and less than 10% of the area that is commonly ice-free in summer was open. A modest phytoplankton bloom developed in the upper mixed layer in the northernmost area (72°S). The bloom peaked in mid-February with max chlorophyll concentrations of 1.5 μg l−1, and integrated stocks of 55–60 mg m−2. Autotrophic flagellates dominated the biomass (80–90% of the chlorophyll) at first, while diatoms increased relative to flagellates during the bloom. Nutrient deficits, however, indicated that a much larger biomass was produced than was observed. Freezing starting after mid-February probably terminated the bloom, resulting in a pelagic growth season limited in time (less than two months) and space. The sea ice had a distinct brown layer of algae, usually at 1–2 m depth, with average chlorophyll biomass of 10.3 mg m−2. The ice cover exhibited a substantial amount of ridges, with ice algae growing in cavities and other structures, but with lower biomass than in the bands. Ice algae were also found growing on the lower 2 m of the ice shelf (visible at low tide). The overall growth season in the ice lasted several months, and ice algal production may have exceeded pelagic production in the Weddell Sea during the growth season of 1997. Pennate diatoms, like Fragilariopsis curta and F. cylindrus, dominated both in ice and in open water above the pycnocline, while Phaeocystis antarctica dominated in deeper layers and in crack pools. Euphausiids, particularly young stages, were frequently observed grazing on ice algae in ridges and on all sides of the floes, (confirmed by the gut content). Ice algae would thus have served as an ample food supply for the krill in the summer of 1997.