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We report ground-based measurements of the polar middle atmosphere made using a 230–250 GHz passive microwave radiometer deployed at Troll station (72°01′S 02°32′E, L shell of L = 4.8), Antarctica. Our observations show enhanced mesospheric nitric oxide (NO) volume mixing ratio (VMR) during a series of small recurrent geomagnetic storms in the 2008 austral winter, reaching 1.2 ppmv on day 200 (18 July). The Lomb normalized periodogram of the NO VMR time series averaged over 65-80 km for days 130 to 220 of 2008 (9 May to 7 August) shows a peak exceeding the 95% confidence limit at 25.8 days, close to the synodic rotation period for low-latitude solar coronal holes. The highest correlations between the radiometer NO VMR data and trapped and quasi-trapped electron count rates for L = 3.5-5.5 from the Polar Orbiting Environment Satellites 90° telescope are for the >30 keV (90e1) channel (rmax = 0.56, lag time of 5.1 days) and >100 keV (90e2) channel (rmax = 0.57, lag time of 4.4 days). Maximum correlation between NO VMR and the >700 keV (90P6) channel data is lower but lag times are close to zero. Superposed epoch analyses for the eight most significant geomagnetic storm periods and three Carrington rotations (2070-2072) within the 90 day observation period indicate that significant NO abundance observed at 65-80 km in the Antarctic mesosphere may be produced directly by >200 keV electron precipitation or originate from a source at higher altitudes, e.g., production by >30 keV electrons followed by downward transport.

In this study, we present evidence that Antarctic and Arctic sea ice act as sink for atmospheric CO2 during periods of snowmelt and surface flooding. The CO2 flux measured directly at the flooded sea ice surface (Fflood) constituted a net CO2 sink of −1.1 ± 0.9 mmol C m−2 d−1 (mean ± 1 SD), which was an order of magnitude higher than the flux measured at the snow-air surface (Fsnow) and bare ice surface (Fice). The Fsnow/Fflood ratio decreased with increasing water equivalent of snow and superimposed-ice, suggesting that the properties of snow and superimposed-ice formation affect the magnitude of the CO2 flux. The Fsnow/Fflood ratio ranged from 0.1 to 0.5, illustrating that 50–90% of the potential flux at the flooded surface was reduced due to the presence of snow/superimposed-ice. Hence, snow cover properties and superimposed-ice play an important role in the CO2 fluxes across the sea ice-snow-atmosphere interface.

Recent studies have concluded that different water bodies in the ocean can contain different microbial communities. The goal of the present study was to determine if biogeographic patterns are present for aquatic microbes in waters which meet around the South Shetland Islands(SSI), Antarctica. Prokaryotic and eukaryotic marine microbial communities were monitored during the 2007 austral summer by use of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and denaturing gradientgel electrophoresis (DGGE) of small subunit ribosomal DNA. Hydrographic properties, nutrients and chlorophyll a were also measured. There was an onshore to offshore gradient in temperature, salinity and iron concentration and a unimodal distribution of chlorophyll a concentration in rela-tion to the middle of this gradient that occurred near the SSI. The differences in microbial community structure among stations in the studied area were correlated with both geographical distance and environmental factors. For eukaryotes, the correlation was strongest for environment, where as it was strongest for geographical distance for the prokaryotes. Eukaryotic and prokaryotic community structures were highly correlated. Surface water from the Weddell Sea had a different community of eukaryotes than the water in the Antarctic Circumpolar Current in the Drake Passage, whereas the prokaryotic community was not significantly different. The area close to theSSI where the 2 water types mix had the highest chlorophyll concentration and significantly dif-ferent communities of eukaryotes and prokaryotes from both of the inflowing water types. These results suggest that the prokaryote community structure was more affected by productivity thanby environmental variables. KEY WORDS: Microbial biogeography. Microbial community. Natural iron enrichment. Southern Ocean.

During ship-based seabird surveys in the south Atlantic and Antarctica in the austral summers of 1994/95, 2009, 2010, 2011 and 2012, we documented at-sea distributions of Buller’s albatross (Thalassarche bulleri), Atlantic petrel (Pterodroma incerta), soft-plumaged petrel (Pterodroma mollis), Kerguelen petrel (Lugensa brevirostris) and great-winged petrel (Pterodroma macroptera). In some cases, sightings were considered as extralimital, but for other species updating their distributions in the literature seems warranted. Atlantic petrel, for example, has been regularly observed in the Drake Passage and north of the Antarctic Peninsula for about 30 years, but the distribution of this species has not been updated in the literature. The observations reported here will contribute to update the at-sea distributions of these species and to changes in their distributions. Keywords: Seabirds; Antarctica; South Atlantic Ocean; distribution.

Data pertaining to environmental conditions, sympagic (sea ice) microalgal dynamics and particle flux were collected before the spring ice break-up 2001 in Pierre Lejay Bay, adjacent to the Dumont d'Urville Station, Petrel Island, East Antarctica. An array of two multiple sediment traps and a current meter was deployed for five weeks, from 8 November to 6 December 2001. The sea-ice chlorophyll a and particulate organic carbon (POC) averaged 0.6 mg l−1 (30 mg m−2) and 20 mg l−1 (1 g m−2) near the coast. The POC export flux that reached a maximum of 79 mg m−2 d−1 during the study period was high compared to the one for the Weddell Sea. The flux was homogeneous from the surface to 47 m depth and increased sharply 33 days before the effective ice break-up. A north-western progressive vector of currents (i.e., Lagrangian drift) in the sub-ice surface waters was demonstrated. Bottom ice, platelet ice and under-ice water at 5 m were characterized by differences in colonization and short-term succession of microalgae. Keywords: Land-fast ice; oceanic short-term regime; POM flux; sympagic communities; East Antarctica.

The geology of Dronning Maud Land (East Antarctica) is so far deduced from isolated outcrops along the coast and from a major coast parallel escarpment surmounting the thick ice sheet. Large parts of Dronning Maud Land are, however, hidden underneath thick ice. In this study we attempt to connect geological information with aeromagnetic data in order to unveil the subglacial geology of this part of East Antarctica. During four austral summer campaigns (2001–2005) in Dronning Maud Land, new aeromagnetic data were gathered across an area of 1.2million square kilometers of which a portion of 65% was previously unexplored. In total 100,000 line kilometers were flown over Dronning Maud Land between 14°W/20° E and 70°S/78.5°S. A striking result was the discovery of a pronounced magnetic anomaly, named here Forster Magnetic Anomaly, east of the Jutulstraumen. It starts at approximately 72°S/007°E and strikes in southwesterly direction as far south as 75°S/1°W. The Forster Magnetic Anomaly likely forms a major tectonic block boundary and/or a suture zone within the East African–Antarctic Orogen (EAAO). The shape and distribution of other magnetic anomalies are discussed in the context of the Proterozoic to Mesozoic geological history of this part of Antarctica.

Over the last decade, several hundred seals have been equipped with conductivity-temperature-depth sensors in the Southern Ocean for both biological and physical oceanographic studies. A calibrated collection of seal-derived hydrographic data is now available, consisting of more than 165,000 profiles. The value of these hydrographic data within the existing Southern Ocean observing system is demonstrated herein by conducting two state estimation experiments, differing only in the use or not of seal data to constrain the system. Including seal-derived data substantially modifies the estimated surface mixed-layer properties and circulation patterns within and south of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current. Agreement with independent satellite observations of sea ice concentration is improved, especially along the East Antarctic shelf. Instrumented animals efficiently reduce a critical observational gap, and their contribution to monitoring polar climate variability will continue to grow as data accuracy and spatial coverage increase.

The reproductive biology of the sea pen Malacobelemnon daytoni was studied at Potter Cove, South Shetland Islands, where it is one of the dominant species in shallow waters. Specimens collected at 15–22 m depth were examined by histological analysis. M. daytoni is gonochoristic and exhibited a sex ratio of 1:1. Oocyte sizes (>300 µm) and the absence of embryos or newly developed larvae in the colonies suggest that this species can have lecithotrophic larvae and experience external fertilization. This life strategy is in line with other members of the group and supports the hypothesis that this could be a phylogenetically fixed trait for pennatulids. It was observed that oocytes were generated by gastrodermic tissue and released to the longitudinal canal. Thereafter, they migrate along the canal until they reach maturity and are released by autozooids at the top of the colonies. This striking feature has not yet been reported for other pennatulaceans. Mature oocytes were observed from colonies of 15 mm in length, suggesting that sexual maturity can be reached rapidly. This is contrary to what is hypothesized for the vast majority of Antarctic benthic invertebrates, namely that rates of activities associated with development, reproduction and growth are almost universally very slow. This strategy may also explain the ecological success of M. daytoni in areas with high ice impact as in the shallow waters of Potter Cove.

The spatiotemporal sensitivity of Antarctic sea ice season length trends are examined using satellite-derived observations over 1979–2012. While the large-scale spatial structure of multidecadal trends has varied little during the satellite record, the magnitude of trends has undergone substantial weakening over the past decade. This weakening is particularly evident in the Ross and Bellingshausen Seas, where a ∼25–50% reduction is observed when comparing trends calculated over 1979–2012 and 1979–1999. Multidecadal trends in the Bellingshausen Sea are found to be dominated by variability over subdecadal time scales, particularly the rapid decline in season length observed between 1979 and 1989. In fact, virtually no trend is detectable when the first decade is excluded from trend calculations. In contrast, the sea ice expansion in the Ross Sea is less influenced by shorter-term variability, with trends shown to be more consistent at decadal time scales and beyond. Understanding these contrasting characteristics have implications for sea ice trend attribution.

Many challenges remain for estimating the Antarctic ice sheet surface mass balance (SMB), which represents a major uncertainty in predictions of future sea-level rise. Validating continental scale studies is hampered by the sparse distribution of in situ data. Here we present a 26 year mean SMB of the Fimbul ice shelf in East Antarctica between 1983–2009, and recent interannual variability since 2010. We compare these data to the results of large-scale SMB studies for similar time periods, obtained from regional atmospheric modeling and remote sensing. Our in situ data include ground penetrating radar, firn cores, and mass balance stakes and provide information on both temporal and spatial scales. The 26 year mean SMB on the Fimbul ice shelf varies between 170 and 620 kg m−2 a−1 giving a regional average value of 310 ± 70 kg m−2 a−1. Our measurements indicate higher long-term accumulation over large parts of the ice shelf compared to the large-scale studies. We also show that the variability of the mean annual SMB, which can be up to 90%, can be a dominant factor in short-term estimates. The results emphasize the importance of using a combination of ground-based validation data, regional climate models, and remote sensing over a relevant time period in order to achieve a reliable SMB for Antarctica.

Antarctica is a highly interesting region for ecologists because of its extreme climatic conditions and the uniqueness of its species. In this article, we describe the trends in Antarctic ecological research participation by Latin American countries. In a survey of articles indexed by the ISI Web of Science, we searched under the categories ‘‘Ecology,’’ ‘‘Biodiversity Conservation’’ and ‘‘Evolutionary Biology’’ and found a total of 254 research articles published by Latin American countries. We classified these articles according to the country of affiliation, kingdom of the study species, level of biological organization and environment. Our main finding is that there is a steady increase in the relative contribution of Latin American countries to Antarctic ecological research. Within each category, we found that marine studies are more common than terrestrial studies. Between the different kingdoms, most studies focus on animals and most studies use a community approach. The leading countries in terms of productivity were Argentina, Chile and Brazil, with Argentina showing the highest rate of increase. Keywords: Antarctica; Argentina; Brazil; Chile; research trends; scientific productivity.

In this study, we have determined the contents and distribution of zinc and cadmium in the surface sediments from Prydz Bay, East Antarctica. The main sources of the trace elements and their geographic heterogeneity, and the relation between Zn and Cd, are discussed based on the cluster analysis, principle component analysis and considerations of biogenic and lithogenic inputs. The results show that the contents of trace metals range from 34.6 to 96.6 mg kg-1 for Zn, and from 0.254 to 0.441 mg kg-1 for Cd. Calculations of the enrichment factor indicated no significant anthropogenic impact. Biogenic and lithogenic inputs are the main sources of trace metals. They are almost equal for Zn and Cd at the Amery Ice Shelf edge, while the continental shelf and deep ocean are dominated by biogenic inputs. The contribution of biogenic inputs is much higher for Zn than for Cd at the deep ocean. Calculations of biogenic trace metals revealed different relationships between biogenic Zn and biogenic Cd, which reflect the biological uptake by phytoplankton in the water column. Keywords: Trace elements; sources; enrichment factor; cluster analysis; principal component analysis; Antarctica.

Physiological characteristics of inorganic C uptake were examined in Southern Ocean ice algae and phytoplankton assemblages. Ice algal and phytoplankton assemblages were largely dominated by diatoms and Phaeocystis antarctica, and showed a high capacity for HCO3- utilization, with direct HCO3- transport accounting for ~60% of total inorganic C uptake. Extracellular carbonic anhydrase (eCA) was detectable in all samples, but with significantly lower activity in sea ice algae. Neither HCO3- transport nor eCA activity was related to the in situ partial pressure of CO2 (pCO2) or taxonomic composition of samples. The half-saturation constant (KS) for inorganic C ranged from ~100 to 5000 µM, and showed significantly more variability among sea ice algae than phytoplankton assemblages. For the phytoplankton assemblages, there were significant positive correlations between in situ pCO2 and KS (higher C substrate affinity in low pCO2 waters), and also between KS and maximum C uptake rates (Vmax). In contrast, KS and Vmax in sea-ice algal assemblages were not correlated to each other, or to any other measured variables. The C isotope composition of particulate organic carbon(δ13C-POC) in the phytoplankton assemblages showed modest variability (range -30 to -24.6‰) and was significantly correlated to the ratio of inferred growth rates (derived from Vmax) and in situ CO2 concentrations, but not to any measured C uptake parameters. δ13C-POC in sea ice algal samples (range -25.7 to -12.9‰) was significantly heavier than in the phytoplankton assemblages, and not correlated to any other variables. Our results provide evidence for the widespread occurrence of carbon-concentrating mechanisms in Southern Ocean sea ice algae and phytoplankton assemblages. KEYWORDS: Phytoplankton · Sea ice algae · Inorganic carbon uptake · HCO3- · Carbonic anhydrase

King George Island is the largest island and the principal area used for research bases in Antarctica. Argentina, Brazil, Chile, China, Poland, Russia, South Korea and Uruguay have permanent open bases on this island. Other countries have seasonal summer stations on different parts of this island, which demonstrates that human impact is strong on King George Island relative to other areas in the maritime and continental Antarctica. The objective of this work was to present a phytosociological approach for ice-free areas of Hennequin Point, eastern coast of Admiralty Bay, King George Island. The study started with the classification and description of the plant communities based primarily on phytosociological and biodiversity data. The area was mapped using an Astech Promark II® DGPS, yielding sub-metric precision after post-processing with software. The plant communities were described as follows: (1) lichen and moss cushion formation; (2) moss carpet formation; (3) fellfield formation; (4) grass and cushion chamaephyte formation; and (5) Deschampsia Antarctica–lichen formation. Characterizations and distributions of the plant communities are presented on a map at a scale of 1:5000. The plant communities found at Hennequin Point, in general, differ from those found in other areas of the Admiralty Bay region, probably because of the concentration of skua nests in the area and the relief singularities. We conclude by highlighting the importance of the study of plant species found in the ice-free areas of the Antarctic with respect to environmental monitoring and for evaluating global climate and environmental changes. Keywords: Plant communities mapping; lichens; mosses; flowering plants; Antarctic

A previously uncultured cyanobacterium, strain KNUA009, was axenically isolated from a meltwater stream on Barton Peninsula, King George Island, South Shetland Islands, Antarctica. Molecular evidences showed that the isolate belongs to groups of globally distributed cryosphere cyanobacterial clones and this new isolate represents the first laboratory culture to be assigned to these groups. Strain KNUA009 was able to thrive at low temperatures ranging between 5°C and 20°C, but did not survive at temperatures of 25°C and above. As the isolate morphologically resembled Oscillatoria species, it is suggested that this cyanobacterium may represent a new species clade with cold resistance within the genus Oscillatoria. Keywords: Barton Peninsular; cryosphere cyanobacteria; King George Island; uncultured Oscillatoria species.

Circulation and exchange processes at high-latitude ocean margins are investigated in this thesis, by using analytical models, numerical simulations and hydrographic data. In the Northern Hemisphere, the establishment of Atlantic Water transport as a topographically steered slope current has been investigated. A simplified analytical model based on geostrophic balance predicts that buoyancy loss over a sloping boundary leads to a cross-slope baroclinic flow transformed into an along-slope barotropic flow. And the resulting transport changes can be estimated from hydrographic data. Over the continental slope off Scotland, the diagnosed transport changes in the barotropic flow is in agreement with the observed transport changes. The results emphasize that geostrophy can be used to diagnose topographically steered barotropic flow, which makes it especially useful for high latitudes where topographic steering of ocean circulation is strong. In the Eastern Weddell Sea in the Atlantic Sector of Antarctica, the processes controlling the exchanges of water masses over the continental slope have been studied, by taking advantage of over 11,000 hydrographic profiles collected by instrumented seals in this region from February to November 2008. The proposed mechanism, that the wind-driven downwelling is responsible for the accumulation of Antarctic Surface Water near the ice front and its further spreading beneath the ice shelf along the coast of Eastern Weddell Sea, is revisited by a combination of detailed analysis of the data collected by the seals, an analytical model and numerical simulations. The results show that the Antarctic Surface Water enters the ice shelf cavity after being brought on-shore by wind-driven surface Ekman transport, and being spread below the depth of the ice base within a regime of coastal downwelling. The results also suggest a complex picture of water mass exchange processes along the coast of Eastern Weddell Sea, in which mesoscale eddies play a central role. Finally, the data collected by the seals are employed to evaluate the performance of a global coupled ocean-ice model incorporated with a parametrization of wave-induced mixing in simulating the upper ocean properties in the Southern Ocean. The results suggest that wave-induced mixing is important to modify the upper ocean properties. Since coastal water properties in the Eastern Weddell Sea are mainly determined by the onshore Ekman transport of surface waters, the wave-induced mixing also plays a role in preconditioning the coastal water masses in this region. I dette arbeidet er sirkulasjon og blandingsmekanismer i havområder på høge breddegrader undersøkt ved bruk av analytiske modeller, numeriske simuleringer og havobservasjoner. På den nordlige halvkulen er det undersøkt hvordan transport av Atlanterhavsvann etablerer seg som en topografisk styrt strøm langs kontinentalsokkelskråningen. En forenklet analytisk modell basert på geostrofisk balanse kan forklare hvordan varmetap i vannet som strømmer langs en skrånende bunn fører til en baroklin strøm på tvers av skråningen som igjen blir transformert til en barotrop strøm langs den skrånende bunnen. Denne transportendringen kan man beregne fra hydrografiske data. En slik beregnet transportendring over kontinentalsokkelskråningen vest for Skotland stemmer godt overens med observert transportendring i denne regionen. Resultatene understreker at geostrofi kan bli brukt til å diagnostisere topografisk styrte strømmer, noe som gjør teorien spesielt egnet for å studere oseanografi på høge breddegrader der topografisk styring av strømmene er mest tydelig. I det østlige Weddellhavet, i den atlantiske sektoren av Antarktis, har prosessene som styrer vannmasseutvekslingen på tvers av kontinentalsokkelskråningen blitt undersøkt ved å ta i bruk mer enn 11.000 havprofiler som er blitt samlet inn av seler i denne regionen fra februar til november 2008. Selene var utsyrt med temperatur-, salt- og dybde-loggere. Den foreslåtte mekanismen at vind-drevet nedstrømning er ansvarlig for oppsamling av antarktisk overflatevann nær isbremmen og for dens videre spredning under den flytende isbremmen langs kysten av den østlige Weddellhavet, er testet ved hjelp av en kombinasjon av detaljerte dataanalyser av observasjonene som ble samlet inn av selene, en analytisk modell og numeriske simuleringer. Resultatene viser at det antarktiske overflatevannet entrer hulområdet under isbremmen etter at det er blitt fraktet mot isbremmen som Ekman-transport i overflaten. Spredningen på undersiden av den flytende isbremmen kan forklares ved hjelp av samme mekanisme som nedstrømning langs en kyst. Resultatene tyder også på at vannmasseutvekslingen langs kysten av det østlige Weddellhavet er sammensatt av flere prosesser der virvler av mesoskala størrelse spiller en sentral rolle. Til slutt er dataene som ble samlet inn av selene blitt brukt til å evaluere en global hav-is-modell som har innebygget en parameterisering av bølgedrevet blanding i Sørhavet. Resultatene indikerer at bølgedrevet blanding er viktig for å modifisere hva de øvre vannmassene i Sørhavet er sammensatt av. Siden sammensetningen i kystvann i det østlige Weddellhavet er hovedsakelig bestemt av Ekmantransport inn mot kysten, vil bølgedrevet blanding også spille en rolle når det gjelder å danne kystvannmassene i denne regionen.

Freshwater pulses from melting ice sheets are thought to be important for driving deglacial climate variability. This study investigates challenges in simulating and understanding deglacial climate evolution within this framework, with emphasis on uncertainties in the ocean overturning sensitivity to meltwater inputs. The response of an intermediate complexity model to a single Northern Hemisphere meltwater pulse is familiar: a weakening of the ocean overturning circulation in conjunction with an expansion of sea ice cover and a meridional temperature seesaw. Nonlinear processes are vital in shaping this response and are found to have a decisive influence when more complex scenarios with a history of pulses are involved. A meltwater history for the last deglaciation (21–9 ka) was computed from the ICE-5G ice sheet reconstruction, and the meltwater was routed into the ocean through idealized ice sheet drainages. Forced with this meltwater history, model configurations with altered freshwater sensitivity produce a range of outcomes for the deglaciation, from those in which there is a complete collapse of the overturning circulation to those in which the overturning circulation weakens slightly. The different outcomes are interpreted in terms of the changing hysteresis behavior of the overturning circulation (i.e., non-stationary freshwater sensitivity) as the background climate warms through the course of the deglaciation. The study illustrates that current uncertainties in model sensitivity are limiting in efforts to forward-model deglacial climate variability. Furthermore, ice sheet reconstructions are shown to provide poor constraints on meltwater forcing for simulating the deglaciation.